Masterpieces in metal

The millennium celebrations of the Brihadisvara temple in Thanjavur showcased the largest collection of Chola bronzes ever.

IT was a gallery that defied description. It held the largest collection of Chola bronzes ever assembled in one place 76 masterpieces in all, the majority of them crafted during the reign of Raja Raja Chola, the Chola emperor (regnal years 985-1014 CE) who built Raja Rajesvaram, or the Brihadisvara temple, in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. The gallery, set up at the Thanjavur Palace, was the centrepiece of the millennium celebrations of the temple, an architectural audacity in itself, organised by the Tamil Nadu government from September 22 to 26.

Among the images on display were Nataraja (of Tiruvalangadu near Chennai); Ardhanarisvara, Bhikshatana, an eight-armed Siva and the expressive Kannappa Nayanar (all belonging to Tiruvengadu near Thanjavur); the Buddhas of Nagapattinam; the Tirtankaras of Tindivanam; and Velan of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which belongs to the period of Rajendra Chola (regnal years 1012-1044 CE) and was being displayed for the first time. Also on view were exquisite bronzes of Kali and Neesumbasudani, both with eight arms; a rare Veenadhara Dakshinamurthy; Saivite saints Karaikaal Ammaiyar, Tirugnana Sambandar, Appar, Sundarar and Manickavasagar; and Krishna with Sathyabhama and Rukmani.

The earliest of the pieces, dating to the 8th century CE, was of the Somaskanda group, which originally comprised Siva, Parvati and their child Skanda seated between them, but is now without the child. Bronzes discovered at Tiruindalur, Velankanni and Tiruvarur in May, July and August 2010 respectively, were also on display.

The artefacts stand testimony to the perfection the atliers of the Chola period had achieved in the art of metal casting.

The lithic inscriptions in the Brihadisvara temple provide a list of 66 beautiful bronzes that Raja Raja Chola, his sister Kundavai, his queens and his commanders gifted to the temple. The inscriptions have a wealth of information on the enormous amounts of jewellery the Chola emperor, his queens and his officers donated to adorn these bronzes, which were processional deities that were taken out during temple festivals.

The inscriptions reveal that Raja Raja Chola named the bronze of a dancing Siva, called Dakshina Meru Vitankar, Adavallan (expert in dance). Today, of the 66 bronzes, only this and another, of Siva's consort Sivakami, remain in the Brihadisvara temple (Frontline, July 2, 2010).

In his book Rajarajesvaram, the Pinnacle of Chola Art (published by Mudgala Trust in 1985), B. Venkataraman says: Of these sixty-six metallic images in gold, silver, copper, bronze, brass and panchaloha (the five metals in amalgam consisting of gold, silver, copper, zinc and tin), only two have survived to stand in lonely majesty, bespeaking the glory of the age of metal-casting, and to remind us of the ravages of time and political convulsions that have swept the region over the millennium since the temple had been built. We do not know where all the rest have disappeared. In fact, but for all the detailed lithic records about them, we could not even be aware that this enormous number of metals was ever cast in that region. It would be rewarding indeed if we could pause for a moment to study these icons, for they record the peak of the Chola metal casting, an art so assiduously practised in his grand-aunt Sembiyan Mahadevi's days and so avidly taken by Rajaraja himself in his own time.

The exhibition may not have permitted a study of the Chola icons but it brought them closer to the people, which was itself a rewarding experience. It was made possible by the efforts of Tamil Nadu Minister for School Education Thangam Thennarasu, an engineer with scholarship in Tamil epigraphy, iconography, arts and culture, and R. Nagaswamy, a former Director of the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department, and an iconographer of international repute. Nagaswamy curated the show, which included the bronzes described below and many more.

Nataraja of Tiruvalangadu: This is one of the finest Chola bronzes and portrays Nataraja performing the Ananda tandava. The image was cast on the lines of Dhyanasloka in Thevaram and it fits the poetic description where the poet-saint Appar sings of Siva as having arched eyebrows, lips as red as a kovvai fruit, a beatific smile and a raised golden foot.

Of his four hands, the upper right hand plays the damaru, the lower right one depicts the abhaya hasta mudra (sign of protection), the upper left one is stretched in the gaja-hasta pose (like the trunk of an elephant) and the lower left one holds a flame with nine tongues, symbolising the continuum of energy.

This Nataraja wears three necklaces a jewelled necklace, a beaded one and a rosary of rudraksha berries. His right ear has a makara kundala (fish-like earring) and the left ear has a patra kundala (circular scroll earring). Unfortunately, the jata (the flying hair) and the aureole (tiruvasi in Tamil) with a series of flames are missing. His right foot is planted firmly on Muyalakan, or Apasmara (in Sanskrit), the dwarf who stands for ignorance, and the left foot is poised lightly in the air.

The art historian the late C. Sivaramamurti in his seminal work Nataraja in Art, Thought and Literature (first published by the National Museum, New Delhi in 1974) describes this bronze thus:

To about 1000 A.D. should be assigned the famous Nataraja of Tiruvalangadu now in the Madras Museum [renamed Government Museum, Chennai]. It is a classical example and the best known image of its kind in any public museum in the world. The pose of this figure, its rhythmic movement, the flexion of the body and the limbs, the perfect smile, the physical proportions and the flowing contours are blended into a pose so amazing that it is no wonder that [Auguste] Rodin, the world famous sculptor, considered this to be the most perfect representation of rhythmic movement in the world.

While Rodin described this metal icon as perpetual beauty in bronze, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy noted that the grandeur of the conception of Ananda tandava was a synthesis of science and religion and art. He called the sthapathis, who made such astonishing bronzes, rishi-artists.

Nagaswamy called this Nataraja a unique contribution of Tamil Nadu to the world of art and a masterpiece both as an art specimen and for expressing the high form of philosophy of the cosmos. Just as the planets in the cosmos move in a rhythm, there is a rhythm in the dance of Siva, he says. Tamil artists visualised Nataraja's dance as ananda tandava, which he danced to the rhythm of the damaru he played.

The sthapathi of this bronze has paid so much attention to detail that even the workmanship of the flames held by the Nataraja is extraordinarily beautiful, says P.R. Srinivasan in his book Bronzes of South India, published by the Government Museum, Chennai, in 1963.

Velan (Subrahmanya) of Gangaikonda Cholapuram: The image commemorates Raja Raja Chola's son Rajendra Chola's (regnal years 1012-1044 CE) conquest, across the sea, of the Sri Vijaya kingdom, including Kedah (in the Malaysian peninsula, which formed part of the larger territory of the then Sri Vijaya kingdom), Sumatra and Java (both now in Indonesia). Legend has it that the most outstanding exploit of Subrahmanya, also called Deva Senathipathi, was his victory over the demon Surapadman at sea.

The bronze shows Velan in his battle accoutrements, a beautiful smile playing on his serene face. His four hands hold a sword called Sakthi Padai, given to him by Parvati, a shield, a rooster and Vajra, the weapon given to him by Indra. He wears a karanda makuta (tiered crown), a headband, makara kundala (earrings shaped like fish), udara banda (stomach band) and three pearl necklaces. The dhoti is held in place by a simha-clasp (buckle resembling a lion).

Gangaikonda Cholapuram was the capital of Rajendra Chola, a great temple builder and conqueror like his father. At Gangaikonda Cholapuram he built a temple, Gangaikonda Cholisvaram, which resembled closely Raja Rajesvaram. The temple commemorated his conquest of Bengal and the Gangetic region and his bringing of the water of the river Ganga to the Chola country. For this, he received the title Gangaikondan (Conqueror of the Ganga).

R. Balasubramanian, Curator (archaeology), Government Museum, Chennai, noted that the Velan bronze demonstrated influences of the Pala style of Bihar and Bengal.

Ardhanarisvara of Tiruvengadu: This bronze of fabulous workmanship belongs to the reign of Rajathiraja and is dated to 1045 CE. Ardhanarisvara is a fusion of Siva and Parvati the right and left halves respectively in a standing posture. It expresses, philosophically, the union of Siva, the godhead, and Sakti, the divine energy.

Nagaswamy described it as a masterpiece in art, combining in itself manliness and female elegance. The sthapathi has shown a contra-distinction in every feature eyes, arms, shoulders, legs, and even dress and jewellery. The two hands on Siva's side are strong and muscular, but Parvati's hand (there is only one) is slender. Siva's shoulder and scapula are rock-like but Parvati's appear soft. There is a difference in the shape of the nose, too, on either side. As for the waist, Parvati's is slender and curvy and Siva's is almost erect. Siva's leg exhibits strength but Parvati's is lithe. Parvati's eye is fish-like and Siva's is broad. Siva has a kangan on his wrist while Parvati wears bangles. Siva wears a pearl necklace and Parvati a gold chain. Siva is dressed in tiger skin and Parvati in a thin sari with a series of horizontal pleats.

The Ardhanarisvara was discovered in 1960, buried in the precincts of the Svetaranyesvara temple in Tiruvengadu. Nagaswamy, who was then Curator, Madras Museum, acquired it for the government. He dated it to 1045 CE from an inscription in the temple. It also revealed that Thuppaiyan Uthama Choli, a nobleman, donated this image to the temple.

Kannappa Nayanar of Tiruvengadu: Tinnan, a hunter-prince who lived in the forested hills near Kalahasthi in present-day Andhra Pradesh, is venerated in Saivite hagiography as Kannappa Nayanar, one of the 63 Saivite nayanmars (saints). His unparalleled devotion to Siva was put to the test by Siva himself. During a hunting expedition, when Tinnan saw an eye of the mukha-linga bleeding, he gouged out one of his eyes with his arrow and grafted it to the linga's bleeding eye. No sooner did he do it than the other eye on the mukha-linga started bleeding. Tinnan had no hesitation in scooping out his other eye and grafting it on to the linga. Touched by his piety, Siva restored his vision, and he was called Kannappa, the devotee who gave his own eyes to Siva.

Kannappa's bronze is dramatic in its appeal. He stands holding the gouged-out eyeball in his right hand. His right eye socket is hollow, and even his upper row of teeth can be seen. He has a beard, and as befitting a hunter-prince, he sports a fierce moustache.

On the palm of Kannappa's extended right hand, we can see the eyeball, while the manner in which the fingers of the left hand are bent suggests that they must have held the arrow, says Job Thomas in his book Tiruvengadu Bronzes, published by Cre-A: in 1986. Tinnan wears armlets and wristlets, and a leather apron, its edges laced with shells. True to his role as a hunter, he wears rough sandals.

Bhikshatana of Tiruvengadu: Siva is every inch a young mendicant here. In his matted hair are the moon, a skull, a cobra and flowers. He has four hands. The hand of the upper right arm holds a damaru and the lower one on that side feeds a leaf to the antelope that follows him. On the left side, the lower left hand has a skull-cup, while the upper one must have held a trident. A cobra, with a big hood, slithers around his waist. The Bhikshatana wears necklaces, a stomach-band and wooden sandals. A bell tied to his left leg announces his arrival. Inscriptions reveal that a nobleman, Amalan Seyyavayar, donated this image to the Tiruvengadu temple.

Enthol Mukkan, of Tiruvengadu: Enthol Mukkan (11th century CE) is a form of Siva that is worshipped by villagers as the protector of their fields. In some places he is called A shta Bhairava. He is called Enthol Mukkan because he has eight hands and three eyes. While two cobras are coiled around his waist, two more have entwined themselves around his upper arms.

Kali: She is seated and has eight hands and, surprisingly, a benign face.

Neesumbasudani: This image is dramatic as the deity, with eight hands, is poised to spear a demon. In the hands are a kapala (skull cup), kanda (bell), dagger, sword and shield. One of the hands portrays the viswa maya (sense of wonder) mudra. While one hand is broken, in the other the trishul she usually wields is missing.

All eight hands in each of the three bronzes Enthol Mukkan', Kali and Neesumbasudani are distributed evenly, a task that is difficult to achieve in metal art, said Nagaswamy.

Veenadhara Dakshinamurthy: This was a rare piece on display, said Balasubramanian. It is datable to the 10th century CE and belongs to Mayiladuthurai, Thanjavur. Dakshinamurthy, who is the fount of all knowledge, is shown as playing the veena, but the veena is missing.

Krishna, Sathyabhama and Rukmani: The group comprising Krishna with Sathyabhama and Rukmani has been worked on intricately. This group belongs to the early Chola bronzes of the 11th century from Tiruvarur near Thanjavur. Rukmani is represented but rarely in Chola bronzes.

On display from the Tiruvarur hoard were also a beautiful Rama, Devi and Nandi, all belonging to the 11th century.

Buddhas and Tirtankaras: They formed an eclectic collection. Two exquisite Buddhas, one standing and the other seated on a throne with two Naga attendants, were from Nagapattinam.

Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, was an important port on the east coast and a flourishing maritime trade centre in ancient India. It lay on one of the two sea routes to India from China and became an important centre of learning and pilgrimage for Buddhists from China, Sri Lanka and Kadaram (Kedah). Between 1856 and the 1930s, about 350 Buddha bronzes were found at Vellipalayam and Nanayakkara Street in Nagapattinam.

In the estimate of T.N. Ramachandran, former Joint Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, the discovery of 350 Buddhas unfold an interesting phase of Nagapattinam's history and have recovered for us a lost page in the history of South Indian Buddhism (The Nagapattinam and other Buddhist Bronzes in the Chennai Museum, first published in 1954).

Nagapattinam was a Buddhist centre even during the Pallava rule. The Pallava king Rajasimha (circa 690-728 CE) built a Buddha vihara there. It was an established Buddhist centre when Raja Raja Chola ascended the throne in Thanjavur in 985 CE.

The Sri Vijaya king Sri Mara Vijayotunga Varman sent an emissary from Kedah to Raja Raja Chola, requesting his permission to build a Buddha vihara near Nagapattinam in the name of his father Sri Chulamani Varman. Raja Raja Chola granted permission and also gifted wealth and a village, Anaimangalam near Nagapattinam, for this in 1006 CE. This is recorded in Raja Raja Chola's copper plate charter called Anaimangalam Grant, now displayed in the Leiden Museum in the Netherlands.

The seated Buddha, according to Nagaswamy, is an illustrious example of a Buddhist bronze from the age of Raja Raja Chola. Two Naga attendants, holding fly-whisks, stand behind the Buddha. This small, 73-cm-tall bronze of riveting beauty was found in Nanayakkara Street in 1934. The Buddha's hands are in the dhyana pose, indicating attainment of knowledge, and he is seated in the Padmasana posture. Behind the Buddha is a prabha in three parts with beautiful designs. There is a circular aureole around the Buddha's head with 35 flames. The Buddha's ear lobes are broad and proportionate to the face. He has seven rows of curls of hair, with an usnisa (flame of knowledge) on top.

In this bronze, the arresting features are the symmetrical Naga attendants, one on either side of the Buddha. Each of them has one hand holding a fly-whisk and the other showing the viswa maya mudra. Five serpent hoods placed above their heads indicate their Naga nature, while their personal attire and ornaments indicate their regal status.

An Adinatha bronze of the 13th century was found at Kidangal near Tindivanam, which was an ancient Jaina settlement in Tamil Nadu. At the rear of the pedestal of the bronze is an inscription that says Vakkiran Kizhar made this image as a votive offering.

Kulasekara Nallur bronzes: Another important group of bronzes that were displayed belonged to Kulasekara Nallur, a village near Tiruvidaimaruthur in Thanjavur district. A treasure trove of bronzes, including a dancing Siva (Nataraja), and puja vessels was found at Konruzham Pallam, just outside Kulasekara Nallur, a few decades ago. These bronzes belong to the period of Kulotunga Chola II and are datable to 1150 CE. Unlike his Tiruvalangadu counterpart, the Nataraja of Kulasekara Nallur was found fully intact and is of ethereal beauty. Also found was a metal image of Sivakami. Some of the puja vessels had epigraphs that mention the name Ethirili Chola. The entire group was consecrated by Ethirili Chola, who was popularly known as Kulotunga Chola II.

Recent discoveries: Also on display were three hoards of bronzes, a massive copper plate charter with a big Chola royal emblem, metal trumpets and puja articles, all of which were unearthed at Tiruindalur, Velankanni and Vedaranyam this year. The hoard found in the Kailasanatha temple in Tiruindalur village (Nagapattinam district) had 13 beautiful bronzes, the biggest-ever copper plate charter with 86 leaves, two trumpets called Ekkalam in Tamil, and puja vessels.

Nagaswamy dated the bronzes to 1053 CE. He described them as a fantastic find and said they belonged to the period of Rajathiraja Chola but in the earlier metal-casting tradition of Raja Raja Chola. The bronzes included that of Karaikaal Ammaiyar, two standing Ganeshas, Appar, Sundarar with his wives Sangili and Paravai, a dancing Tirugnana Sambandar, Manickavasagar, Chandikesvara, Chandrasekhara with his consort, and the Somaskanda group comprising Siva, Parvati and Skanda.

A bronze where the atelier has wrought his consummate skill is that of Karaikaal Ammaiyar who undertook extreme penance to have a beatific vision of the dancing Siva. She looks every inch emaciated in this artefact. In his book Nataraja in Art, Thought and Literature, Sivaramamurti pays a lot of attention to different icons of Karaikaal Ammaiyar, belonging to the Chola period.

The Velankanni hoard, datable to the 12 century, included Tripurantaka, the Somaskanda group, Appar, Tirugnana Sambandar and Manickavasagar, Subrahmanya with his consorts Valli and Deivanai, and a four-armed Ganesa.

As Nagaswamy said, these bronzes were wrought with such consummate skill by master-craftsmen that it is difficult to say which [one] is not a masterpiece.